Biotechnology Laboratories

Biotechnology laboratories are specialized facilities where scientists and researchers conduct experiments and develop technologies related to biotechnology. Biotechnology is a field of applied biology that involves the use of living organisms and biological systems to create useful products or solve problems. Biotechnology labs may be found in academic institutions, government agencies, and private companies.

What is a bioreactor?

A bioreactor is a device used in biotechnology to cultivate and control the growth of living organisms, such as bacteria, yeast, or cells, in a controlled environment. It provides the necessary conditions for optimal growth, such as temperature, pH, nutrients, and oxygen supply. Bioreactors are commonly used in various applications, including the production of pharmaceuticals, biofuels, and other bioproducts.

Some of the common areas of research in biotechnology labs include genetic engineering, bioinformatics, protein engineering, cell culture, drug discovery, and bioprocessing. Biotechnology labs are equipped with specialized instruments and equipment such as microscopes, centrifuges, DNA sequencers, and bioreactors.

In these labs, researchers may work with a variety of living organisms such as bacteria, yeast, plants, and animals. They may also use techniques such as gene editing, cloning, and sequencing to manipulate genetic material and create new products or modify existing ones.

Overall, biotechnology labs play a crucial role in advancing our understanding of living systems and developing technologies that can improve human health, agriculture, and the environment.

What is the concept of laboratory equipment?

Laboratory equipment serves a variety of purposes, such as measuring, mixing, heating, cooling, analyzing, storing, and manipulating materials and samples. Different types of laboratories, whether in chemistry, biology, physics, engineering, or other scientific disciplines, require specialized equipment to perform specific tasks and achieve their objectives.

Some common examples of laboratory equipment include:

Microscopes: Used to magnify and observe small objects or samples at a microscopic level, such as cells, microorganisms, or small particles.

Pipettes: Precise liquid handling tools used to transfer small volumes of liquids.

Bunsen burners: A source of heat used for heating substances in various experiments.

Balances: Instruments used to measure the mass of substances with high precision.

Beakers, flasks, and test tubes: Containers used for mixing, holding, and heating liquids and substances.

Autoclaves: Devices used to sterilize equipment and materials through high-pressure steam.

Centrifuges: Used to separate components of a mixture based on their density and sedimentation rates.

Spectrophotometers: Devices used to analyze the absorption or emission of light by a substance.

Incubators: Used to provide controlled temperature and environmental conditions for cell cultures and biological experiments.

Fume hoods: Enclosed workspaces with ventilation systems designed to protect researchers from hazardous fumes and vapors.

Gas chromatographs and mass spectrometers: Analytical instruments used to identify and quantify the components of a mixture.

Laboratory equipment must be accurately calibrated, well-maintained, and used according to specific protocols to ensure the reliability and reproducibility of experimental results. Additionally, safety measures are essential when handling some equipment, as they may involve hazardous materials or processes. Proper training and adherence to safety guidelines are crucial for maintaining a safe laboratory environment.

Bioreactor

A bioreactor is a device that is used for the production of biological products such as vaccines, antibodies, and other biologically derived compounds. It is a vessel that provides a controlled environment for the growth of living organisms, including bacteria, yeast, and mammalian cells. Bioreactors can be used for a variety of purposes, including research, bioprocessing, and production.

There are several types of bioreactors, including batch, continuous, and fed-batch bioreactors. Each of these types has its own unique features and advantages.

Batch Bioreactors:

Batch bioreactors are the simplest type of bioreactor, and they are commonly used for small-scale experiments and research. They operate by adding all the required nutrients and microorganisms to the reactor at the beginning of the process and allowing them to grow and produce the desired product over a specified period of time. The product is then harvested, and the reactor is cleaned and sterilized before starting a new batch.

Continuous Bioreactors:

Continuous bioreactors operate by continuously adding nutrients and microorganisms to the reactor and removing the product as it is produced. This allows for a constant and steady supply of the product, making continuous bioreactors ideal for large-scale production. They can be used to produce a variety of products, including antibiotics, enzymes, and vaccines.

Fed-batch Bioreactors:

Fed-batch bioreactors are a hybrid of batch and continuous bioreactors. They operate by adding nutrients and microorganisms at the beginning of the process and then periodically adding more nutrients as the microorganisms consume them. This allows for a longer production period and a higher yield of product compared to batch bioreactors. Fed-batch bioreactors are commonly used for the production of proteins and other complex biologically derived compounds.

Bioreactors can be made from a variety of materials, including glass, plastic, and stainless steel. They can also be designed to be sterile and airtight to prevent contamination and to allow for a controlled environment. Bioreactors can be operated manually or through automated systems, depending on the complexity of the process.

In summary, bioreactors are important tools in biotechnology and can be used for a wide range of applications, from research to large-scale production of biologically derived products. The type of bioreactor used will depend on the specific application and the desired product.

If you are interested in science and have a desire to put yourself on the edge of the emerging industries, the HCC biotechnology technology program can prepare you for a rewarding career in biotechnology research, cell culture, and tissue or biotechnology.

The two-year program provides students with the knowledge and skills needed to work in a high-tech work environment. The program provides flexibility for students to focus on the fields of engineering, natural sciences, mathematics and science, information technology, or health sciences.

Autoclave
Microcentrifuges
Microcentrifuge Tube Racks
Centrifuge Tubes
Water Bath
Incubators
Cryo Tubes
Petri Dish
Bunsen Burner
PCR Tubes
Electrophoresis Chamber

1. Autoclave

An autoclave is a machine used to perform industrial and scientific processes that require elevated temperatures and pressures relative to the ambient pressure/temperature. Autoclaves are used in medical applications for sterilization and the chemical industry to treat adhesions and to make rubber resistant and hydrothermal compounds. Industrial autoclaves are used in industrial processes, especially in the production of composites.

Most autoclaves are used to lock tools and equipment by placing them in a steam-filled system of 121 ° C (250 ° F) for approximately 15-20 minutes depending on load size and content. The autoclave was invented by Charles Chamberland in 1879, although the autoclave known as steam digester was created by Denis Papin in 1679. The word comes from the Greek auto-, eventually meaning self, and the Latin clavis meaning key, thus the device locks itself.

Uses

Reproductive autoclaves are widely used in microbiology and mycology, medicine and artificial limbs, body painting, and body piercing, as well as funeral arrangements. They vary in size and performance depending on whether the media will be sterilized and is sometimes called a retort in the chemical and food industries.

Common loads include laboratory glasses, other equipment and waste, surgical tools, and medical waste.

Significant recent use and popular growth of autoclave treatments for pre-disposal and sterilization for waste disposal, such as hospital waste that causes disease. The machines in this category usually operate under the same conditions as conventional autoclaves because they can prevent potentially infectious diseases by using steam and hot water.

A new generation of garbage collectors can achieve the same result without the pressure-loading vessel of cultural media, rubber items, clothing, apparel, gloves, etc. It is especially useful for items that can withstand high temperatures in an air-conditioned oven.

Autoclaves are also widely used to treat compounds especially combining multiple layers without any voids that can reduce the strength of an active substance as well as the collapse of rubber. The high temperature and pressure generated by autoclaves help to ensure that the best visual elements are duplicated.

Manufacturers of sailboats have individual holes over 15 feet long and 10 feet wide, and some foundations in the aerospace industry are large enough to hold fuselage aircraft made of thick compounds.

Some types of autoclaves are used to raise crystals under high temperatures and pressures. Synthetic quartz crystals used in the electronics industry are planted in autoclaves. Parachuting packaging for specialized applications can be done under a vacuum in an autoclave, allowing the chute to be heated and packaged in very small volumes.

The Thermal Effluent Decontamination System acts as a single-purpose autoclave designed to shut off sperm from liquid waste and pollutants.

Air Removal

It is very important to make sure that all trapped air is removed from the autoclave before activation, as confined air is the worst place to achieve infertility. Smoke at 134 ° C can reach the desired level of infertility in three minutes while achieving the same temperature in hot air requires two hours at 160 ° C. Exhaust systems include.

Moving down

As steam enters the room, it fills the upper areas first as it is slightly congested than air. This process compresses the air downward, releasing it through a channel that normally contains a heat sensor. Only when the exhaust is complete does the exhaust stop.

Flow is usually controlled by a steam trap or solenoid valve, but bleed holes are sometimes used. As a mixture of steam and air, It is also possible to extract the mixture from the chambers outside the floor.

Steam pulsing

air purification uses a series of steam pulses, in which the chamber is pressed separately and then compressed to be closer to the air pressure.

Vacuum pumps

a vacuum pump absorbs air or air/smoke mixtures from a room.

Superatmospheric cycles

reached by the vacuum pump. The number of pulses depends on the specific autoclave and the selected frequency.

Subatmospheric cycles

similar to cycles, but the pressure of the chamber never exceeds the atmospheric pressure until they pressurize to a lethal temperature.

Stovetop autoclaves used in poor or non-medical settings do not always have automatic ventilation systems. The user is required to make smoke by hand with a certain pressure as indicated by the scale.

In Medicine

A medical autoclave is a device that uses steam to kill tools and other items. This means that all bacteria, viruses, fungi, and seeds do not work. However, prions, such as those associated with Creutzfeldt – Jakob disease, and other toxins released by certain bacteria, such as Cereulide, will not be destroyed by autoclaving at 134 ° C for 3 minutes or 121 ° C for 3 minutes. 15 and instead. should be immersed in sodium hydroxide and heated to autoclave gravity displacement at 121 ° C for 30 minutes, rinsed, rinsed in water, and subjected to simple sterilization.

Autoclaves are found in many medical settings, laboratories, and other areas that need to ensure the infertility of an object. Many modern-day procedures have used alternatives to disinfectant and reusable. Autoclaves are very important because of the large number of recycled materials.

Because of the use of wet heat, heat-labile products cannot be sterilized in this way or will melt. In all autoclaves, allow steam to enter the load evenly.

Autoclaving is often used to dispose of medical waste before solid municipal solid waste. This app has become very popular as an alternative to burns due to environmental and health concerns raised burning products emitted by burners, especially in small portions used in individual hospitals.

Burning or similar hot oxidation processes are still commonly approved in pathological waste and other highly toxic or contagious medical waste. For liquid waste, the waste disposal system is the same hardware.

At the dentist, autoclaves provide closure of dental implants.

In many developed countries around the world, medical autoclaves are controlled by medical devices. Most medical-grade autoclaves are therefore limited to using cycles approved by the regulator. Because they are designed for regular use in the hospital, they prefer rectangular designs, require more complex repairs, and are more expensive to use.

In Research

Autoclaves used in education, research, biomedical research, pharmaceutical research, and industrial settings are used to enclose laboratory tools, glassware, cultural media, and liquid media. Research grade autoclaves are widely used in these settings where efficiency, ease of use, and flexibility are paramount.

Research grade autoclaves may be optimized for passing performance. Makes it possible to maintain a complete separation between clean and potentially infected workplaces. Research autoclaves are very important for BSL-3 or BSL-4 applications.

Research-grade autoclaves — not approved for use of disinfectants to be used directly on humans — are primarily designed for efficiency, flexibility, and ease of use. They reflect a variety of designs and sizes, and they are often tailored to their use and the type of load. Common changes include cylindrical or square pressure chambers, air or water cooling systems, and room doors vertically or horizontally.

In 2016, the Office of Sustainability at the University of California, Riverside conducted a study of autoclave efficiency in their genomics and entomology research labs, tracking the strength of several units and water use. UCR research-grade autoclaves perform similar functions with equal efficiency but use 83% less energy and 97% less water.

Quality assurance

Chemical references to medical packages and autoclave tape change color when appropriate conditions are met, indicating that the substance inside the package or under the tape, has been properly processed. Autoclave tape only marks the steam and heat-activated dye.

Marking on tape does not indicate total infertility. The most challenging device, called the Bowie-Dick device by its developers, is also used to ensure a full cycle. Consists of a complete chemical index sheet placed in the center of the paper stack. It proves that the process achieved the full temperature and time required for a minimum rotation of 134 ° C for 3.5-4 minutes.

To prove infertility, biological indicators. Biological indicators contain traces of heat-resistant bacterium, Geobacillus. If the autoclave does not reach the right temperature, the seeds will germinate when incubated their body will change the color of a chemical that is sensitive to pH.

Other visual indicators include a mixture designed to melt only after being below a given temperature at the right time to hold. When the mixture melts, a change will be noticeable.

Some computer-controlled autoclaves use F0 values to control the sterilization cycle. F0 values are set by the number of minutes of interest rate equal to 121 ° C at 100 kPa over atmospheric pressure for 15 minutes. As precise temperature control is difficult, the temperature and the timing of the sterilization are adjusted accordingly.

2. Microcentrifuges

A laboratory centrifuge is a piece of laboratory equipment, driven by an engine, that spins fluid samples at high speeds. There are different types of centrifuges, depending on the size and volume of the sample.

Like all other centrifuges, laboratory centrifuges operate on the principle of deceleration, where centripetal acceleration is used to distinguish between high and low-density objects.

Types

There are different types of centrifugation:

Separate centrifugation, commonly used to separate certain organelle cells from whole cells to further analyze certain cell components.

Isopycnic centrifugation is commonly used to separate DNA-like nucleic acids

Sucrose gradient centrifugation is commonly used to clean coated bacteria and ribosomes, as well as to separate cell organelles from impurities.

There are different types of laboratory centrifuges:

Microcentrifuges

small tube equipment from 0.2 ml to 2.0 ml small tubes, up to 96 plates, compact design, small foot; up to 30,000 g

Clinical centrifuges

high-speed machines used for clinical applications such as blood collection tubes

High-speed centrifuges have many purposes

wide range of tube size devices, high variability, great footprint

Ultracentrifuges

Analysis and preparation models

Due to the heat generated by air collisions even in ultracentrifuges, where the rotor operates in a good vacuum and the general need to keep samples at a given temperature.

3. Centrifuge Tubes

Centrifuge tubes made of precision, sturdy glass, or plastic tubes are made to fit exactly in the rotor holes. They may vary in dosage from 50 mL down to very small doses of microcentrifuges commonly used in molecular biological laboratories. Microcentrifuges usually take small disposable plastic tubes with a capacity of 250 μL to 2.0 mL.

Glass centrifuge tubes can be used with many solvents, but they are often more expensive. They can be cleaned like other laboratory glassware, and they can be cleaned by autoclaving. Minor scratches from careless handling can fail under rigid forces imposed during the run. Glass tubes are inserted into the soft rubber sleeves to protect them during running.

Centrifuge plastic tubes, in particular, tend to be less expensive and, with care, can last as long as glass. Water is preferred when using centrifuge plastic tubes. It is very difficult to clean them properly, and they are usually not expensive enough to be disposed of.

Disposable plastics of 0.5ml to 2ml small tubes are commonly used in microcentrifuges. Made from light flexible plastic-like polythene, it has a semi-conical shape, with interlocking caps with hinges.

Larger samples are filtered using centrifuge bottles, ranging from 250 to 1000 milliliters per volume. Although some are made of heavy glass, centrifuge bottles are usually made of durable plastics such as polypropylene or polycarbonate. Closure closures may be used to add proof of leakproof.

Closure closures may be used to add proof of leakproof. Fuge tubes made of precision, sturdy glass, or plastic tubes are made to fit exactly in the rotor holes. They may vary in dosage from 50 mL down to very small doses of microcentrifuges commonly used in molecular biological laboratories. Microcentrifuges usually take small disposable plastic tubes with a capacity of 250 μL to 2.0 mL.

Safety

The load on the laboratory centrifuge should be carefully measured. This is achieved by using a combination of samples and balance tubes of the same weight or by using different measurement patterns other than balance tubes. It is an interesting mathematical problem to solve the balance pattern given to n slots and tubes k of the same weight.

It is known that a solution exists if and only if both k and n-k can be expressed as a sum of the main features. A small difference in the amount of load can cause a large power imbalance when the rotor is high speed. This imbalance of power compresses the spindle and may cause centrifuge damage or personal injury.

Some centrifuges have an automatic rotor misalignment feature that quickly terminates the function when the imbalance is detected.Before starting the centrifuge, an accurate rotor check and shutter lock mechanism are mandatory. A rotating rotor can cause serious damage when touched. Modern centrifuges usually have features that prevent accidental contact with the rotating rotor as the main valve is locked during running.

Centrifuge rotors have high kinetic power during high-speed rotation. Rotor failure, caused by mechanical stress resulting from high power supplied by the engine, may be due to production failure, aging, and wear, or improper use and maintenance. Such failures can be catastrophic failures, especially with large centrifuges, and often result in complete centrifuge destruction.

Although centrifuges often have safety precautions to contain these failures, such protection may not be sufficient, especially in older models, or the entire centrifuge unit may be operated in its place, causing damage to nearby personnel and equipment. Uncontrolled rotor failure shattered laboratory windows and damaged refrigerators and cabinet housing.

To reduce the risk of rotor failure, centrifuge manufacturers specify operating and maintenance procedures to ensure that rotors are regularly inspected and removed from service or reduced if they have exceeded their life expectancy.

Another potential danger is the aerosolization of hazardous samples during centrifugation suspension. To prevent contamination of the laboratory, rotor lids with aerosol-tight gaskets are available. The rotor can be loaded with samples inside the hood and the rotor lid fixed to the rotor. Thereafter, the aerosol-tight system of the rotor and valve is transferred to a centrifuge.

The rotor can be adjusted inside the centrifuge without opening the lid. After running, the entire rotor assembly, including the valve, is removed from the centrifuge to the hood for additional steps, keeping the samples inside the system closed.

4. Microcentrifuge Tube Racks

Test tube racks are laboratory tools used to hold multiple straight tubes at once. They are widely used when different solutions are needed to operate simultaneously, for safety reasons, to secure the maintenance of test tubes, and to facilitate the transport of multiple tubes. Test tubes also facilitate the arrangement of test tubes and provide support for the test tubes in which they are processed.

Types

Test tube racks come in a variety of sizes, shapes, materials, and colors. The variety of test tube racks increases the number of cases in which they can be used to autoclave or refrigerate. Racks are usually made of steel cords, but can also be found as plastic, polystyrene, foam, fiberglass, and polypropylene. Test tube racks come in the form of an old rack and assembling cube form, a removable form, a test tube storage area, a slant rack, and a 1-source rack.

Classic rack

Classic rack are commonly found in any standard laboratory and are made of wood, stainless steel, or plastic. It usually has 8 holes, 10 holes, or 12 holes for storing test tubes.

Combined cube form

This type of test tube racks consists of several separate rack cubes and can be twisted based on the side required for use. Each cube can hold the test tubes but the four sides of each cube hold the tubes with various systems that can be adjusted for proper use. These racks can not only be used for test tubes, but can also be used for holding culture tubes, centrifuge tubes, and small-centrifuge tubes. Connected cube racks can be installed in an autoclave, as well as facilitate the transport of tubes of different sizes.

Stackable rack

Stackable Test Tube Rack

Stackable racks are made of polypropylene and can be installed in an autoclave as well. Using a second frame or chassis these marks appear as old tube racks that can be placed one on top of the other.

Test rack suspension rack

Additionally, drying racks are usually made of polypropylene and can be installed in an autoclave.

Slant rack

Slant racks are used to hold slants to the extent that they need to be installed to dry after the media has been installed in the pipe. It is used to incubate certain liquid cultures at an angle so that all the tubes are the same.

1 - placement

1 source track is designed to hold only one test tube and any space that enters the space. It is usually made of metal wire coated with epoxy but can also be made of polystyrene. Racks made of polystyrene are equal and can hold rack-like tubes in size. These racks are self-rotating and can hold both bottom or round tubes.

Vial racks

Hinge-top containers are filled with a pipette instead of plastic storage.

This type of rack is designed for very small plastic containers. It is usually made of plastic.

5. Water bath

The water bath is a laboratory material made of a container filled with hot water. It is used to incubate water samples at a temperature that does not change for a long time. Most water baths have a digital or analog interface to allow users to set the required temperature, but some water baths have their temperature controlled by the current pass on the reader.

Usage includes heating of reagents, melting of substrates, or insertion of cell culture. It is also used to enable certain chemical reactions to occur at high temperatures. Water baths are a preferred source of heat for flammable chemicals, as their lack of open flame prevents ignition. Different types of water baths are used depending on how they are used. In all water baths, they can be used up to 99.9 ° C. When temperatures are above 100 ° C, alternatives such as oil baths, silicone baths, or sand baths may be used.

Precautionary measures

Use with caution.

It is not recommended to use water-sensitive baths or pyrophoric reactions. Do not overheat the bath liquid over its point.

The water level should be monitored regularly and should be filled only with clear water. This is necessary to prevent salt from entering the heater.

Antibiotics can be added to prevent the growth of organisms.

Increase the temperature to 90 ° C or more once a week for half an hour to eliminate pollution.

Markers often come out easily in the bathwater. Use water-resistant.

If the application involves a liquid that releases smoke, it is recommended that you wash with the bathwater in a smoky or ventilated area.

The cover is closed to prevent evaporation and to help achieve high temperatures.

Stand in a stable position away from flammable materials.

Types of Water bath

Washing water circulation

Rotating water baths also called stirrers are suitable for use where temperature and compliance similarity are important, such as enzymatic and serologic testing. The water is evenly distributed during the bath which leads to the same temperature.

Non-circulating water baths

This type of water bath is more dependent on convection rather than on water being heated equally. Therefore, it is less accurate in controlling the temperature. In addition, some add-ons provide a dynamic in a stagnant water bath to create a uniform heat transfer.

Moving water baths

This type of water bath has more control of vibrations, which move fluids around. This moving feature can be turned on or off. In microbiological practice, frequent vibrations allow cell cultures to grow and develop to constantly interact with air.

Other important advantages of easy-to-use bathwater activator using the keypad, easy bath channels, adjustable vibration waves, LED indicator, optional lift cover, power button connected to the keypad, and warning and shortcut protection at low/high temperature.

Water bath technologies

Bathing is a basic product of any laboratory. Over the years, water purifiers have evolved from basic analog tools to advanced digital machines capable of controlling complex and organized systems, functions, and power.

Key features of bathwater usually include:

Multilingualism

Limit values are user-defined

"Eco modes" save energy after the completion of the installed programs

User-set alarms: audible, audible or both

Display of actual and/or suspended temperatures

Pre-programmed temperature sets are frequently used

Combined time calculators

Decorated gable covers

Balancing the suspended power

Non-corrosive dams

Water pipes

Basic and automatic safety thermostats

Compatible with waterless alloy bath beads

6. Incubator

An incubator is a tool used to grow and maintain microbiological cultures or cell cultures. The incubator maintains optimal temperature, humidity, and other conditions such as CO2 and the oxygen content of the atmosphere inside.

Incubators are important for many experimental tasks in molecular biology, microbiology, and molecular biology and are used to make bacterial and eukaryotic cells.

Lightweight incubator boxes are equipped with a flexible heater, usually rising to 60 to 65 ° C although some may rise slightly. The temperature most commonly used for both viruses such as E. Frequent cold and mammals' animal cells are approximately 37 ° C, as these insects thrive under such conditions.

For some biological experiments, such as the young yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a growth temperature of 30 ° C is ideal.

Highly detailed incubators can also combine thermometer, or moisture control, or CO2 levels. This is important for the growth of mammals in mammals, where the relative humidity is usually> 80% to prevent evaporation, and a slightly acidic pH is achieved by maintaining a CO2 level of 5%.

History of the laboratory incubator

From assisting in hatching chicken eggs to making scientists able to understand and develop antibiotics, the laboratory incubator has seen many uses over the years. The incubator also provided the basis for medical development and experimental work on cellular biology.

The incubator is made of a room with a controlled temperature. Some incubators also control humidity, gas formation, or air intrusion inside the room. Although many technological advances have taken place since ancient incubators were first used in ancient Egypt and China, the main purpose of the incubator has remained unchanged: to create a stable, controlled environment that allows for research, study, and planting.

Early incubators

The first incubators were found thousands of years ago in ancient Egypt and China, where they were used to keep chicken eggs warm. The use of incubators altered food production, as it allowed the hens to incubate the eggs without having to have the hen sit on them, thus freeing the hens from laying many eggs in a short time. Both the original Egyptian and Chinese incubators were large rooms set on fire, with the guards occasionally turning the eggs to ensure even distribution of heat.

16th and 17th centuries

Reaumur thermometer

The incubator was revised in the 16th century when Jean Baptiste Porta painted an ancient Egyptian design to make a modern egg incubator. Although he eventually had to resign from his position because of the Spanish Inquisition, Rene-Antoine Ferchault de Reaumur took up the challenge in the mid-17th century. Reaumur heated his incubator with a wood stove and monitored its temperature using the Reaumur thermometer, one of his inventions.

In the 19th century

By the 19th century, researchers were beginning to realize that the use of

incubators could contribute to medical advances. They are beginning to try to find a better place to store cell culture. These early incubators were simply made of metal pots that had one candlelit. The rituals were placed near the flame under the lid of the pot, and the whole pot was placed in a dry, hot oven.

The incubator was invented by Hess Toward the end of the 19th century, doctors discovered another practical use of incubators: keeping premature or weak babies still alive. The first children's incubator, used in a women's hospital in Paris, was lit with kerosene lamps. Fifty years later, Julius H. Hess, an American physician commonly regarded as the father of pediatrics, invented an electric incubator that closely resembled the infants used today.

In the 20th century

A moving incubator

The next breakthrough in incubator technology occurred in the 1960s when the CO2 incubator was introduced to the market. The need arose when doctors realized that they could use CO2 incubators to detect and detect viruses found in patients' body fluids.

To do this, the sample was harvested and placed in an empty container and an incubator. The air in the incubator was kept at 37 degrees Celsius, the same temperature as the human body, and the incubator maintains the amount of carbon dioxide and nitrogen needed to promote cell growth.

During this time, incubators also began to be used in genetic engineering. Scientists can synthesize important biological proteins, such as insulin, using incubators. Genetic modification is now possible at the cellular level, helping to improve nutritional content and resistance to epidemics and fruit and vegetable diseases.

Today

Incubators perform a variety of scientific laboratory functions. Incubators usually maintain a constant temperature, but additional features are often built. Many incubators also control humidity. Moving incubators include movement to mix cultures. Gas incubators control the formation of internal gases. Some incubators have air circuits inside to ensure the distribution of temperatures.

Many laboratory incubators are equipped with an inexhaustible power supply, to ensure that power outages do not interfere with testing. Incubators are made in a variety of sizes, from tabletop models, to warm rooms, which serve as incubators for large quantities of samples.

7. Cryo Tubes

Polypropylene with very high translucence. Finally and conservation of tissue culture and biological samples e.g. sera, blood, and semen. It should be stored from the common cold refrigerator (+ 4 ° C) down to the liquid nitrogen vapor phase.

Cryo tubes are polypropylene tubes used in laboratories to save samples at cryogenic temperatures. They can be safely used in the refrigerator or liquid nitrogen vapor. When immersed in liquid nitrogen, a sheath is required. These laboratory tubes are non-pyrogenic and non-toxic. Alternatively, it can be used at temperatures up to -66 ° C.

Made with Clean Room ISO 7 (UNI EN ISO 14644-1). Class 10.000 (US FED STD 209E).

Interest by beta-radiation, products meet Sterility Assurance Level (SAL) 10-6

Autoclavable at 121 ° C for 20 Min

DNA-free, DNase, Pyrogen, ATP, human DNA, and PCR Inhibitor certificate

A lid with a combined binding function; no silicone O-ring added

The inner conical bottom of the complete discharge

White titles for accurate measurement

White sample identification words

Available with internal or external threads is based on one hand use

Each tube and package is marked with an expiration date cap: PE and TVP

2.0 ml, 4.0 ml, and 5.0 ml tubes are available and have a round bottom packed in PE bags of 50 tubes inboxes.

8. Petri dish

Petri bowl is a transparent open lid used by biologists to capture the growth area where cells can be grown, initially, germ cells, fungi, and micro-organisms. The vessel is named after its founder German bacteriologist Julius Richard Petri. It is the most common type of custom plate. The Petri container is one of the most common in the biological laboratory and has entered into the culture. The term is sometimes written in small letters, especially in non-technical books.

The so-called Petri dish was originally invented by German physician Robert Koch in his private research institute in 1881, as a precursor. Petri as Koch's assistant at the University of Berlin made the final changes in 1887 as they are used today.

Penicillin, the first disinfectant, was discovered in 1929 when Alexander Fleming discovered that the fungus that had contaminated bacterial culture in a Petri container had killed germs around it.

Features and variants

Petri's vessels are usually cylindrical, mainly with a diameter of 30 to 200 mm, and measurement of length in diameter from 1:10 to 1: 4. Versions of squarish are also available.

Petri dishes were traditionally intended to be reused and made of glass; usually of heat-resistant borosilicate glass with the appropriate interest rate at 120–160 ° C. Since the 2010s, plastic containers, usually disposable, are also common.

Containers are usually covered with a clear, transparent lid, similar to a slightly wider version of the container itself. The lids of glass containers are usually loose. Plastic containers may have a lid that closes the space to prevent drying of the contents. Alternatively, some versions of glass or plastic may have small holes around the line, or ribs under the cover, to allow air to flow over the culture and prevent water congestion.

Some Petrol containers, especially plastic ones, often have rings and/or spaces on their lids and bases so that they do not slip away when stacked. Smaller vessels may have an external protective base on the microscope stage for direct inspection. Some versions may have grids printed on the floor to help balance cultural congestion.

A microplate is a single container with a series of bottom holes, each of which is a Petri container. It makes it possible to inject and grow multiple or hundreds of independent cultures of multiple samples at once. Not only is it cheaper and easier than the various dishes, but the microplate is also easy to manage and test automatically.

History

Petri's diet was developed by German physician Julius Richard Petri (after whom he was named) while working as Robert Koch's assistant at Berlin University. Petri did not invent a traditional meal himself; rather, it was a modified version of Koch's founding. Koch had published a preface to a pamphlet in 1881 entitled "Zur Untersuchung von Pathogenen Organismen", known as the "Bacterial Bible." He described a new method of bacterial culture using a slide with agar and container called the Kammer.

The bacterium was spread on a glass slide and then placed in a damp room with a small wet paper towel. Bacterial growth was easily detected. Koch publicly demonstrated his refining process at the Seventh International Medical Congress in London in August 1881. There Louis Pasteur exclaimed Using this method in which Koch acquired key strains of tuberculosis, anthrax, and cholera.

For his research on tuberculosis, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1905. His disciples also discovered important things. Friedrich Loeffler contracted prostate cancer in 1882 and diphtheria in 1884; and Georg Theodor August Gaffky, a typhoid bacterium in 1884.

Petri made changes in the way the round meal was used. It is often asserted that Petri made a new cultural plate, but this is incorrect. Instead of using a separate glass slide or plate on which traditional media was placed, Petri directly placed the media in a glass bowl, eliminating unnecessary measures such as passing traditional media, using wet paper, and reducing the risk of contamination. He published an improved method in 1887 entitled "Eine Kleine Modification des Koch'schen Platten verfahrens". Although it could have been called Koch dish, the latter method was given the name Petri dish.

Uses

Microbiology

Petri dishes are widely used in biology to grow germs such as bacteria, yeast, and worms. It is best suited for living organisms in a strong or almost uniform environment.

The traditional ingredient is usually a plate of agar, a thin layer of a few millimeters of agar, or an agarose gel containing any nutrients the body needs and other desired ingredients. Agar and other ingredients are dissolved in warm water and poured into a container and left to cool. When the medium hardens, the sample of the organism is vaccinated.

The containers are then left untouched for hours or days as the body grows, possibly in an incubator. They are usually covered, or placed face down, to reduce the risk of infection with airborne particles.

Bacterial or phage cultures require the number of germs to grow in the container first, which then becomes the culture of the viral inoculum.

Although Petri's vessels are widespread in microbiological research, smaller vessels are often used in large studies where the growing cells in Petri containers can be expensive and overworked.

Pollution detection and mapping

Petrol utensils can be used to visualize contaminated surfaces in surface areas, such as kitchen counters and utensils, clothing, food preparation, or animal and human skin.

In this application, Petri containers can be filled so that the culture medium protrudes slightly above the edges of the container to make it easier to take samples from solid objects. The shallow petrol dishes cooked in this way are called Living Lists and Counting Plates and are commercially available.

Cells of cells

Petri jars are also used for the transplantation of isolated cells of eukaryotic organisms, such as immunodiffusion courses, in solid agar or liquid form.

Plant and agricultural science

Axenic Cell plant culture Physcomitrella patens on an agar plate in a Petri container

Petri jars can be used to monitor the early stages of plant growth, and plant plants as opposed to individual cells.

Entomology

Petri vessels may be enclosed spaces for the study of the behavior of insects and other small animals.

Chemistry

Due to their open size, Petri dishes are effective containers for evaporating solvents and drying out rain, either in the heating room or in ovens and desiccators.

Final sample and display

Petri containers also make good temporary storage of samples, especially liquid, granular, or powder, as well as small items such as insects or seeds. Their visibility and flat profile allow the content to be visually inspected, a magnifying glass, or a low-power microscope without removing the lid.

In popular culture

The Petri container is one of the smallest laboratory equipment named after the popular tradition. It is often used figuratively, e.g. in a content society being explored as viruses in a biological experiment or a place where original ideas and businesses can thrive.

Unicode has a Petri container emoji, with the code point U + 1F9EB HTML organization "& # 129515;" or "& # x1F9EB;", UTF-8 "0xF0 0x9F 0xA7 0xAB".

10. Bunsen Burner

Bunsen Heater, named after Robert Bunsen, is a type of gas heater used as laboratory equipment; produces a single flame of open gas, and is used for heating, sterilization, and burning.

The gas can be natural gas or liquid petroleum gas, such as propane, butane, or a mixture. The temperature of the burn achieved depends in part on the temperature of the adiabatic flame of the selected fuel mixture.

Robert Wilhelm Eberhard Bunsen German bʊnzən 30 March 1811 - 16 August 1899 was a German chemist. He studied the extraterrestrial spectra spectrum and discovered cesium 1860 and rubidium 1861 by physicist Gustav Kirchhoff. The Bunsen – Kirchhoff Prize for spectroscopy was named after Bunsen and Kirchhoff.

Bunsen also developed several gas analysis methods, became a pioneer in photochemistry, and did his first work in the field of organic arsenic chemistry. Together with his laboratory assistant Peter Desaga, he built the Bunsen burner, developed laboratory heaters that were in use at the time.

Early life and education

Bunsen was born in Göttingen, Germany, in 1811, in what is now Lower Saxony, Germany. Bunsen was the youngest of four sons of the University of Göttingen library director and professor of modern philosophy, Christian Bunsen 1770-1837.

After graduating from school in Holzminden, Bunsen studied matric at Göttingen in 1828 and studied chemistry with Friedrich Stromeyer and mineralogy with Johann Friedrich Ludwig Hausmann and mathematics with Carl Friedrich Gauss. After receiving his PhD in 1831, Bunsen spent 1832 and 1833 traveling to France, Germany, and Austria. During his trip, Bunsen met scientists Friedlieb Runge who discovered aniline and in 1819 isolated caffeine, Just von von Liebig in Giessen, and Eilhard Mitscherlich in Bonn.

Academic career

In 1833, Bunsen became a clergyman in Göttingen and began experiments on the dissolution of arsenous acid. His discovery of the use of iron oxide hydrate as a hydraulic agent led to what is still the most effective anti-arsenic toxin. This multiracial study was conducted and published in collaboration with Dr. Arnold Adolph Berthold. Bunsen taught there for three years, then received an associate professor at the University of Marburg, where he continued his studies of cacodyl graduation. He was promoted to full-time professor in 1841. While at the University of Marburg, Bunsen participated in the 1846 mission to explore Icelandic volcanoes.

Bunsen’s work brought him instant and widespread fame, because cacodyl, which is extremely toxic and automatically burned in dry air, is very difficult to work with. Bunsen almost died from arsenic poisoning, and a burst of cacodyl made him see in his right eye.

In 1841, Bunsen created a Bunsen cell battery, which replaced the carbon electrode with the expensive platinum electrode used in William Robert Grove's electrochemical cell. Early in 1851, he received a professorship at the University of Breslau, where he taught three semesters.

A black and white image of two middle-aged men, one leaning on one elbow in a wooden column in the middle. They both wear long jackets, and the short man on the left is bearded.

Gustav Kirchhoff and Robert Bunsen.

The long association with Henry Enfield Roscoe began in 1852, where they studied the phytochemical composition of hydrogen chloride (HCl) from hydrogen and chlorine. From this work, Bunsen and Roscoe's reconciliation law began. He quit his job with Roscoe in 1859 and joined Gustav Kirchhoff to study the extraterrestrial spectrum, a research center called spectrum analysis.

With this work, Bunsen and his laboratory assistant, Peter Desaga, had completed a special gas-fired boiler in 1855, which was influenced by earlier models. The new Bunsen and Desaga design, which provided a hot and clean flame, is now called the "Bunsen burner", a common laboratory device.

There has been previous research on the colors of the thermal element, but nothing has been done. In the summer of 1859, Kirchhoff suggested to Bunsen that he should try to make a prismatic spectrum of these colors. By October of that year, two scientists had launched a suitable tool, the prototype spectroscope.

By using it, they were able to identify the element of sodium, lithium, and potassium. After much strenuous cleaning, Bunsen proved that the purest samples give a unique spectrum. As the work progressed, Bunsen discovered previously unknown blue extraction lines in mineral water samples from Dürkheim.

He speculated that these lines indicate the presence of an undetectable chemical element. After a careful immersion of 40 tons of water, in the spring of 1860, he was able to disperse 17 grams of the new element. He named the phenomenon cesium Latin term meaning blue. The following year he received rubidium, with the same procedure.

In 1860, Bunsen was elected an external member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.

Bunsen's grave at Heidelberg's Bergfriedhof

In 1877, Robert Bunsen and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff became the first recipients of the prestigious Davy Award for their "research and findings from spectrum analysis.

Personality

Bunsen was one of the most popular scientists in his generation. During intense and often caustic scientific debates, Bunsen always behaved like a good man, keeping his distance from theological debates.

He preferred to work quietly in his laboratory, continuing to enrich his science with his useful discoveries. As a rule, he has never issued a patent. He is never married.

Despite his lack of hypocrisy, Bunsen was a clear "chemical character," with a well-developed sense of humor, and the subject of many humorous stories.

Retirement and death

When Bunsen retired in 1889 at the age of 78, he transferred his career to geology and mineralogy, the interests he pursued throughout his career. He died in Heidelberg, Germany, on August 16, 1899, at the age of 88.

Bunsen Burner of History

In 1852, Heidelberg University hired Bunsen and promised him a new laboratory. The city of Heidelberg had begun installing street lights with coal gas, so the university installed gas cables at the new research facility.

The architects intended to use the gas not only for lighting but also for laboratory applications. In any heat lamp, it was desirable to increase the temperature and reduce the brightness. However, the existing laboratory heat lamps have left much to be desired not only for the heat of the fire but also in terms of economy and convenience.

While the building was being built in late 1854, Bunsen proposed some design principles to the university mechanic, Peter Desaga, and asked him to build a prototype. Similar principles were applied to the construction of Michael Faraday's pre-heater, as well as to the patented in 1856 by gas engineer R. W. Elsner.

The Bunsen / Desaga design is successful in producing a hot, waterless, non-flammable flame by mixing gas and air in a controlled manner before combustion. Desaga has created adjustable air holes under the cylinder head, with flames burning at the top.

When the building opened in early 1855, Desaga had made 50 burners for Bunsen students. Two years later Bunsen published the description, and many of his colleagues immediately accepted the design. Bunsen burners are now used in research facilities around the world.

Operation

The device used today safely burns combustible gases such as natural gas or liquefied petroleum gases such as propane, butane, or a mixture of both.

The hose barb is connected to a gas pipe on a laboratory bench with a rubber tube. Many laboratory benches are equipped with multiple gas pipelines connected to a central gas source, as well as vacuum, nitrogen, and steam. The gas then flows to the top of the base through a small hole in the bottom of the barrel and is directed upwards.

There are openings on the side of the tube at the bottom for ventilation into the stream using the Venturi effect, and the gas burns over the tube when ignited by flames or sparks. The most common methods of lighting a burner are using a match or spark lighter.

The amount of air mixed with the gas stream affects the completeness of the fire reaction. Low air produces an incomplete and thus cool reaction, while a stream of gas mixed with air provides oxygen at a stoichiometric rate and thus a complete and hot reaction. Airflow can be controlled by opening or closing the slot holes at the bottom of the drum, similar to the compression function on a carburetor.

Bunsen burner located under the tripod

If the collar below the tube is adjusted so that more air can mix with the gas before it burns, the flame will be much hotter, appearing blue as a result. If the holes are closed, the gas will only come in contact with the surrounding air in the combustion chamber, that is, only after it has come out of the pipe at the top.

This reduced combination produces an incomplete reaction, producing a cool but bright yellow, often referred to as a “safety flame” or a “bright flame”.

The yellow flame shines through small particles of soot in flames, which are burned to incandescence. Blue flame, it may be virtually invisible to other sources.

The hottest part of the flame is the head of the inner flame, and the coldest is the inner flame. Increasing the amount of oil flow in the pipe by opening the needle valve will increase the size of the flame. However, unless the airflow is adjusted again, the flame temperature will drop because the excess gas is now mixed with the same amount of air, starving the oxygen flame.

Typically, the heater is placed under a laboratory tripod, which supports a barrel or other container. The heater will usually be housed in suitable, non-heated mats to protect the laboratory bench.

Bunsen burner is also used in microbiology laboratories to disinfect machine parts and to make improvements that force air pollution away from the workplace.

Variation

Other burners based on the same principle are available. Some of the most important options for a bunsen burner are:

Tecla burner - The lower part of its tube is conical, with a round under its base. The gap, located at a distance between the nuts and the end of the tube, controls airflow like the openings of the Bunsen heater. The Tecla heater offers a better mix of air and fuel and can reach higher flame temperatures than the Bunsen burner.

Maker burner - The lower part of its tube has many holes with a large cross-section, which allows more air and facilitates the mixing of air and gas. The tube is wide and the top of it is covered with a wire grid. The grid separates the flame into a series of small flames with a standard outer envelope and also prevents backflow at the bottom of the tube, which is dangerous for high levels of air to gasoline and limits the maximum air intake common to Bunsen burners.

Flame temperatures of up to 1,100–1,200 ° C 2,000–2,200 ° F are achievable when used properly. The flames burn without sound, unlike the Bunsen or Teclu stoves.

Tirrell burner - The base of the burner has a needle valve that allows control of the flow of gas directly to the Burner, rather than from the gas source. The maximum flame temperature can reach 1560 ° C

11. PCR tubes

Ensuring effective and uniform heat transfer is very easy with our list of PCR tubes. Thanks to our advanced molding technology, GenFollower can offer you high-quality and similar PCR tubes at low wall prices at very competitive prices.

These sterile PCR tubes come with a snap-cap that ensures leakage. We use pure polypropylene only to make the following types of PCR strip tubes.

Types of PCR tubes

0.2ml Flat Optical Cap PCR Tube

Gen Follower offers high-quality 0.2ml PCR tubes with visible caps. You can use these PCR tubes for different real-time PCR tests.

The flat design of the universe, along with its narrow walls, makes it ideal for almost all luxury hot bikes. Our advanced and automated production process also ensures that these PCR tubes do not contain DNase, RNase, heavy metal, and human DNA. Nor are they nonpyrogenic.

0.2ml Flat Cap PCR Tube

and are available at a competitive cost. They can help reduce the risk of reverse infections in PCR tests.

Technical features

It can replicate itself at 121 ° C.

They have no RNase, DNase, metals, and human DNA, as well as non-pyrogenic.

Clear finishing points allow you to verify sample volumes accurately.

Attached caps with good sealing capability help reduce contamination.

Avoid plumbing errors by simply writing on caps and hinges for PCR response tubes.

Made of high-quality pure polypropylene.

High clarity even at the base of the tube.

They ensure efficient and equitable heat transfer.

0.2ml Domed Cap PCR Tube

With these PCR reaction tubes with a full 0.2ml snow, you can do PCR tests without the risk of reverse infection. They have small walls with and uniform surface.

Technical features:

Made of high-quality pure polypropylene.

They have no RNase, DNase, heavy metals, human DNA, and non-pyrogenic.

You can automatically set them to 121 ° C.

Clear markers to finish measuring volumes accurately.

The attached hood-shaped caps have excellent closing capabilities.

Low risk of cross-contamination during transfer and storage.

Easy labeling on PCR caps and hinges.

Exterior wall for easy identification of the sample.

Thin and uniform walls ensure efficient and uniform heat transfer.

0.5ml Flat Cap PCR Tube

We adhere to strict quality control standards in the manufacture of these thin-walled PCR tubes. The design of the attached flat cap provides quick and seamless access to individual samples.

Technical features

You can automatically adjust them at 121 ° C.

Clear the finishing marks to pass the correct dose.

Sturdy sealing caps to prevent evaporation during PCR.

The design reduces the risk of contamination.

The walls are thin, smooth, and very clear for easy visibility.

Quick labeling on flat-capped caps and cap edges.

They ensure uniform heat transfer during PCR.

How are specimen samples tracked and labeled in a lab?

In a laboratory setting, tracking and labeling specimen samples is a critical process to ensure accurate and efficient analysis. The method of tracking and labeling may vary depending on the type of laboratory, the nature of the specimens, and the specific requirements of the experiments or tests being conducted. However, there are some common practices used to track and label specimen samples in labs.

Requisition and Identification: When a specimen sample is collected, it is usually accompanied by a requisition form that provides important information about the sample, such as patient or subject identification, date and time of collection, type of specimen, and specific tests to be performed. Each sample is assigned a unique identifier, such as a barcode or accession number, which is used to link the sample to its associated data and records throughout the laboratory process.

Labeling: Specimen containers, such as tubes, vials, or slides, are labeled with a unique identifier and other relevant information. The labeling should be clear, accurate, and resistant to fading or smudging. Barcoding systems are commonly used, as they allow for quick and accurate scanning of specimen information.

Data Entry: The unique identifier and related information are entered into the laboratory's information management system, creating a digital record for each specimen. This includes details about the sample, the patient or subject, and any other pertinent information required for processing and analysis.

Chain of Custody: In some cases, especially in forensic or legal contexts, a chain of custody may be established. This involves documenting the movement and handling of the specimen from the point of collection to its final destination, ensuring accountability and maintaining the integrity of the sample.

Storage and Tracking: Specimen samples are often stored in designated areas, such as refrigerators, freezers, or specialized storage systems. The storage location is recorded in the information management system to facilitate easy retrieval when needed.

Handling and Transportation: Proper handling and transportation protocols are followed to prevent contamination or damage to the specimen during transit. This includes using appropriate packaging and temperature controls when necessary.

Laboratory Information Management System (LIMS): LIMS is a software platform used in many laboratories to manage the workflow and track samples throughout the testing process. LIMS helps automate various tasks, from sample registration to result reporting, and ensures data integrity and traceability.

Quality Control: Laboratories implement quality control measures to verify the accuracy and reliability of their processes. This includes periodically checking the accuracy of labels, verifying the integrity of stored specimens, and monitoring the performance of equipment used for analysis.

Overall, a well-established system for tracking and labeling specimen samples is crucial in ensuring the accuracy and reliability of laboratory results, which, in turn, impacts patient care, research outcomes, and other applications of the lab's work.

What is the difference between dextrorotatory and levorotatory compounds?

Dextrorotatory and levorotatory are terms used to describe the optical activity of compounds, particularly in the context of chiral molecules. Chiral molecules are those that have non-superimposable mirror images (enantiomers).

Here's the difference between dextrorotatory and levorotatory compounds:

Dextrorotatory (d-) compounds:

Dextrorotatory compounds are those that rotate the plane of polarized light to the right (clockwise) when light passes through them. In chemical notation, d- is used as a prefix to indicate the dextrorotatory nature of a compound. These compounds are also referred to as (+) enantiomers. Dextrorotation is denoted by a positive angle (in degrees) when measuring the rotation of polarized light.

Levorotatory (l-) compounds:

Levorotatory compounds are those that rotate the plane of polarized light to the left (counterclockwise) when light passes through them. In chemical notation, l- is used as a prefix to indicate the levorotatory nature of a compound. These compounds are also referred to as (-) enantiomers. Levorotation is denoted by a negative angle (in degrees) when measuring the rotation of polarized light.

It's important to note that dextrorotatory and levorotatory compounds have identical chemical compositions and physical properties, except for their ability to rotate the plane of polarized light in opposite directions. When a mixture of equal amounts of dextrorotatory and levorotatory enantiomers is present, it is called a racemic mixture. Racemic mixtures do not exhibit optical activity because the rotations of the two enantiomers cancel each other out.

Biotechnology

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